Linskens H., Jackson J. Essential Oils and Waxes 1991

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Linskens H., Jackson J. Essential Oils and Waxes 1991

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Textbook in PDF format Essential oils and waxes are often classified as secondary plant products, and as a result many may be led to believe that they are of only secondary importance. However, nothing could be further from the truth. Perusal of a well-known monthly publication listing research papers of leading plant science journals shows that, currently, papers on essential oils comprise at least 10% of titles published. A total approximately 2000 papers are scanned per month. Furthermore, as the world population moves into an era with increasing demand for "organically" grown products with minimal use of manufactured chemicals both in agriculture and for other purposes, these secondary plant products are assuming a growing importance. Many of the essential oils have extremely useful properties and can be put to use in many ways. For example, terpinen-4-01, an antiseptic agent, is produced synthetically in Europe at great expense ($25000 per tonne). It also occurs naturally in Australia as an essential oil of tea tree (Melaleuca alternifolia) and is sold as tea tree oil obtained by distillation of the plant material. At present only about 50 tonnes of tea tree oil are produced annually, but it is possible that this will increase dramatically with the setting-up of tea tree plantations and as the demand increases for a natural antiseptic perceived as an "organic" cure or additive. Eucalyptus oil is another useful, socalled secondary plant product which is finding commercial markets around the world. Approximately 650 tonnes of eucalyptus oil are produced each year, a large amount considering that this involved the steam distillation of more than 15000 tonnes dry weight of eucalyptus leaves per annum. By definition essential oils are highly volatile substances isolated by a physical method or process from an odiferous plant of a single botanical species (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 15th Edition, 1986). The oil bears the name of the plant species from which it is derived, e.g., rose oil, peppermint oil, etc. These oils were termed essential because they were thought to represent the very essence of odor and flavor. Isolation methods in the past have included steam distillation, enfleurage (i.e., extraction using fat), maceration, solvent extraction, or mechanical pressing. The oils are generally stored in the plant in glands whose function is not well understood. Chemically the essential oils are for the most part tropanes, multiple isoprenoid units, aromatics, heterocyclics, and terpenes. The genetics and biochemistry of the biosynthesis of the essential oils is reasonably well understood in some cases. For example, it is known that limonene is synthesized from geranyl pyrophosphate in the oil glands of Mentha spp., and something of the genetics of this conversion is understood. Further, we know that the various oxygenated derivatives oflimonene that make up the remainder of Mentha oil are synthesized from limonene by microsomal preparations from oil glands, which show cytochrome P-450-type mixed function oxygenase activity. Investigations of this type are underway for many of the essential oils and waxes, and so there is a great demand for reliable methods of analysis for these compounds. Given the growing importance of essential oils and waxes, this Volume deals with the analysis of a broad spectrum of these compounds from many plant origins. Classical methods in lipid analysis, such as acid value, hydrogen value, iodine value, Reichert-Meissl value, saponification value, thyocyanogen test, optical rotation, viscosity, refraction index, etc., are not included; they can be found in the standard methods books. We restrict ourselves to modern, recently developed analytical methods, and to oily and waxy substances of plant origin. Commercial oils of long-standing importance such as olive oil are, of course, dealt with here, but we include also chapters on lesser-known oils such as that from thyme, tea, ginger, desert trees, eucalypt, garlic, mint, cedar, and juniper. In addition analysis of spices, seasoning, seaweeds, perfumes, liquors, and of atmospheric monoterpene hydrocarbons are to be found here, together with a treatment of pharmacological and allergenic activity analysis of plant essential oils. The volatiles offlower and pollen may be of importance in attracting bees and other insects to certain plants for pollination purposes; this topic is accordingly dealt with herein. Waxes perhaps are harder to find amongst topics in the current scientific literature, but nevertheless epicuticular waxes are included here as an ever-important topic, as well as presentation of aspects of analysis of waxes which render certain sands water-repellent in Australia! In the driest of earth's continents, this is certainly a topic of interest. Olive Oil Analysis. A. Kiritsakis and P. Markakis (With 2 Figures) Introduction Quality Tests of Olive Oil-Determination of Acidity and Oxidation Acidity Oxidation Sensory Evaluation of Olive Oil Determination of Certain Constituents of Olive Oil Chlorophyll Determination Determination of Phenols Moisture Determination Moisture Determination by Infrared Balance Determination of Soap Content Olive Oil Adulteration - Adulteration and Genuineness Tests Methods and Techniques of Detecting Adulteration Adulteration Tests Based on Color Formation Adulteration Tests Based on Residue or Clouding Formation Detection of Oil Adulteration by a UV Lamp Detection of Olive Oil Purity by Infrared Spectrophotometry References Analysis of Essential Oils of Tea. A. Kobayashi and M. Kawakami (With 8 Figures) Introduction Isolation of Essential Oils Steam Distillation Under Reduced Pressure (SDR) Simultaneous Distillation and Extraction (SDE) Head Space Gas Analysis Separation and Identification of Essential Oil Components from Tea Gas Chromatography Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS) Gas Chromatography-Infrared Spectrometry-Mass Spectrometry (GC-IR-MS) Components of the Essential Oil Comparison of the Main Components in Various Teas. Specific Components of the Essential Oils Pattern Analyses of Gas Chromatograms References Special Methods for the Essential Oils of the Genus Thymus. M. E. CRESPO, J. JIMENEZ, and C. NAVARRO (With 5 Figures) Introduction Plant Material Extraction Analytical Methodology Qualitative Analysis Quantitative Analysis Conclusions References Chemical Races Within the Genus Mentha. L. S. Kokkini (With 1 Figure) Introduction Biosynthesis of Mentha Essential Oils Chemical Races Oils Rich in Acyclic Compounds Oils Rich in 2-Substituted Compounds. Oils Rich in 3-Substituted Compounds. Conclusions References Special Methods for the Essential Oil of Ginger. T. A. Van Beek (With 8 Figures) Introduction Description and Use Chemical Composition Isolation, Separation and Quality Evaluation of Ginger Oil Traditional Methods of Extraction, Separation, and Control Traditional Isolation Methods Traditional Separation Methods Traditional Quality Control Modern Methods of Extraction, Separation, and Identification Introduction Modern Methods of Isolation Modern Methods of Separation Modern Methods of Identification References GC-MS (EI, DCI, NCI, SIM) SPECMA Bank Analysis of Volatile Sulfur Compounds in Garlic Essential Oils. G. Vernin and J. Metzger (With 11 Figures) A Short Survey of the Chemistry of Garlic Analytical Methods Used for Identification of Sulfur Compounds in Garlic Essential Oil GC-MS (EI, PCI, NCI) of Garlic Essential Oils Kovats Indices as Filters and Their Properties The SPECMA Bank GC-MS Analyses of Two Garlic Essential Oils Originating from France (Provence) and Mexico Analyses and Composition Mechanisms of Formation of Sulfide Derivatives Conclusion References Analysis of Juniper and Other Forest Tree Oil. R. P. ADAMS (With 16 Figures) Introduction Sample Collection Sampling Sample Sizes Diurnal, Seasonal, and Ontogenetic Variation Oil Extraction Chemical Analysis Gas Chromatography Component Identification GCfMC Computer Searches Applications of Terpenoid Data Analyses of Hybridization and Introgression Studies of Geographic Variation Taxon Level Differences and Evolutionary Studies References Cedar Wood Oil - Analyses and Properties. R. P. ADAMS (With 7 Figures) Introduction Sample Collection Oil Extraction Chemical Analysis Gas Chromatography Identification GC/MS Properties Antimicrobial Activities Insecticidal Activities Termiticidal Activities References Analysis of Croton Oil by Reversed-Phase Overpressure-Layer Chromatography. A. D. Kinghorn and C. A. J. Erdelmeier (With 5 Figures) Introduction - Overpressure-Layer Chromatography as a Separatory Technique Phorbol Ester Constituents of Croton Oil Separation of the Phorbol Esters of Croton Oil Two-Dimensional Thin Layer Chromatography Reversed-Phase Overpressure Layer Chromatography Summary and Conclusions References Rotation Locular Countercurrent Chromatography Analysis of Croton Oil. L. A. C. Pieters and A. J. Vlietinck (With 4 Figures) Introduction Croton Oil, the Seed Oil of Croton tiglium RLCC Analysis of Croton Oil Introduction Experimental Details and Discussion Summary and Conclusion References Oils and Waxes of Eucalypts Vacuum Distillation Methodifor Essential Oils. R. B. Inman, P. Dunlop, and J. F. Jackson (With 1 Figure) Introduction Chemical Composition of Eucalyptus Oils and Waxes Methods of Analyses of Eucalyptus Waxes Methods of Analysis of Eucalyptus Oils Vacuum Distillation Method for Essential Oils Preparation of Leaf Powder Distillation Notes References Analysis of Epicuticular Waxes. S. Misra and A. Ghosh (With 9 Figures) Introduction Extraction of Epicuticular Wax Fractionation of Wax Components Column Chromatography Thin Layer Chromatography (TLC) Analysis of Wax Components Analysis of Hydrocarbon by Gas Liquid Chromatography (GLC) Analysis of Wax Esters Analysis of Free Alcohols and Fatty Acids Analysis of Aldehydes Analysis of β-Diketones Conclusion References Analysis of Flower and Pollen Volatiles. H. E. M. DOBSON (With 3 Figures) Introduction Flower Volatile Chemistry Overview of Methodology Volatile Collection Volatile Analysis Cautionary Notes Details of Collection Methods Extraction and Distillation Headspace Cold-Trapping Direct Headspace Sampling Headspace Sorption Passive Sorption References Bioactivities of Diterpenoids from Marine Algae. C. Tringali Introduction Antimicrobial Activity Background Description of the Methods Antimicrobial Diterpenoids from Seaweeds Antialgal Activity Background Description of the Method Antialgal Diterpenoids from Seaweeds Cytotoxic Activity and Other Related Activities Background Description of the Methods Cytotoxic and Antimitotic Diterpenoids from Seaweeds Ichthyotoxicity and Other Defensive Bioactivities Background Description of the Methods Ichthyotoxic and Other Defensive Diterpenoids from Seaweeds Molluscicidal Activity Background Description of the Methods Molluscicidal Diterpenoids from Seaweeds Other Bioactivity Data on Diterpenoids from Seaweeds Concluding Remarks References Determination of Waxes Causing Water Repellency in Sandy Soils. J. F. Jackson and H. F. Linskens Introduction Assessment of Water Repellency of Soils Molarity of the Ethanol Droplet (MED) Method Capillary Rise Technique Other Test Methods Extraction of Water-Repellent Waxes Significance and Conclusions References Analysis of Monoterpene Hydrocarbons in the Atmosphere. Y. Yokouchi (With 8 Figures) Introduction Sampling and Concentration Adsorption Method Grab Sampling GC, GC/MS Method Packed GC/MS (SIM) Capillary GC (FID) Capillary GC/MS Calibration Features of Atmospheric Monoterpenes References Evaluation of Antimicrobial Activity of Essential (Volatile) Oils. S. G. Deans (With 4 Figures) Introduction Extraction of Plant Volatile Oil Evaluation of Antimicrobial Properties of Volatile Oils Antibacterial Testing Antifungal Testing Antimicrobial Activity of Volatile Oils Future Developments in Volatile Oils References Organization of Rapid Analysis of Lipids in Many Individual Plants. E. G. Hammond Introduction Analyses for Total Lipid Content Analyses for Fatty Acid Composition Analyses for Glyceride Structure Analyses for Other Lipid Constituents Analyses for Lipoxygenase References